A brief history of global space programmes

G Madhavan Nair

Outer space is the next frontier of exploration for humankind. The US, Russia, Europe, China and India have established themselves as major players in this field. Several other countries have entered space exploration and there is renewed interest in planetary exploration as well. A common feature of all these is accessing outer space with manned or instrumented spacecrafts for studying the origin of the universe, galaxies, stars and planets. The capability to access space and build and operate spacecrafts are essential elements to space explorations.

The Indian space programme is unique in several respects. It started 20 years after most global players and that too in the civilian domain. Others had huge missiles developed during World War II and later converted for space exploration. In spite of the late start, India has emerged as a global power in space, having powerful rockets like the GSLV Mk-III and advanced technologies for building spacecrafts for earth observation, communication and scientific exploration of earth and the galaxies. India’s first satellite Aryabhata was launched using a Russian launch vehicle, but India’s own SLV3 succeeded in placing Rohini satellite into earth's orbit in 1980, thus entering the space club.

The uniqueness of the Indian programme is that its main thrust is to use the advanced space technology for improving the quality of life of the common man. It has become an essential part of day-to-day life, providing communication, TV transmission, business connectivity and, above all, earth observation data for the benefit of agriculturists, fishermen, planners and defense services. The disaster management system integrating earth observation and communication system is providing advance warning and thus saving thousands of lives in time of natural calamity.

The culmination of all these is Chandrayaan-2, which is the most complex space mission undertaken by ISRO. It blasted off from Sriharikota on board the GSLV Mk-III the most powerful rocket in India on July 22. Though the mission did not succeed fully, the orbiter is fully operational and will be a valuable tool for the scientific community for exploration of our nearest neighbour. This event has consolidated India’s position among the four leading spacefaring nations and raises national pride to new heights.

In the Cold War era, there was tough competition between the US and USSR for demonstrating their supremacy in space exploration. First the USSR succeeded in placing an artificial satellite Sputnik around the earth in 1957. Soon, this was followed by the US. Russia sent their first astronaut to space followed by the US three years later. But it was the declaration by President Kennedy in 1960 that they would have the first man landing on the moon which made global history. This mission was achieved in 1969 when Neil Armstrong stepped on the lunar surface on board a Saturn Rocket. This was a pathbreaking event and about nine missions to the moon were successfully accomplished by the US. In the meantime, Russia was concentrating on robotic exploration of moon and returning with samples.

The US had taken the lead in development of ballistic missiles. After World War II, German scientists and part of V2 missiles captured from Germans gave a kickstart to the missile programme. By the mid-1950s, they had ICBMs capable of delivering payloads to any part of the world. When they wanted to send satellites to outer space, these rockets came in handy. They had competed with USSR, to launch satellites around earth and sent astronauts to space. NASA has been engaged in space exploration since 1958. NASA is a pioneer in establishing earth observation and communication satellites as well as planetary explorations. The earliest probe for the planetary exploration in solar system was launched in 1958 and functioned for 20 years, going beyond the limits of solar system. Post the Apollo years, NASA focused more on development of technologies to enable long-term human presence in space.

Space Shuttle was a reusable launch system that conducted more than 100 missions. In 2010, this fleet was decommissioned and the US is now left with no man-rated launch vehicle to access space. They are totally dependent on Russia's Soyuz launch system for sending men and cargo to space. Recently, private players have entered the arena like Space X and Virgin Galactic. Out of these, the plan to develop reusable heavy lift launchers and a replacement module for Apollo to undertake human flights to outer space are impressive. Virgin works towards reusable spaceship for manned flights for tourism and pleasure.

Russia had pioneered modern rocketry. Russian scientist Konstantin Tsiolkovsky evolved the concepts of rockets and its scientific base. His work Exploration of Outer Space by Means of Reaction Devices was published in 1903, revealing the principles of rockets and the possibilities of space exploration. In 1929, he introduced the concept of the multi-staged rocket as a means of exploring beyond earth, which he dreamed would one day include the exploration of Mars.

But it was the post World War competition for development of ballistic missiles that led to the space war with the US in the 1950s and 1960s. Derivatives of these missiles were used for accessing space.

On the launch vehicle area the Russians had several systems, but it is the Soyuz launch vehicle that has emerged as the leader, proving reliable access to the International Space Station. In 1986, the Soviets took the lead in the creation of space stations with the deployment of Mir. For the fifteen years until 2001, when it was decommissioned, it served as a unique platform in earth orbit providing opportunity for scientific exploration, military use and proving human endurance for long stays in outer space. After liberalisation and the breakup of the USSR, the budget support for Russia's space programme was reduced considerably, affecting their ambition for being global leaders in this field. Today the space efforts are on a low, surviving on commercial income from Soyuz launches and selling technologies.

The Chinese space program also started in 1958 with the help of USSR. After the Sino-Soviet split in 1960, they have undertaken development of ICBM. Derivative of these missiles are the Long March series of launch vehicles, which are popular today. Long March 5 under development is going to be a powerful one. In 1970, they launched a communication satellite and in 1993, they initiated their manned space programme. China succeeded in sending a man to earth's orbit in 2003. The same year, they launched a lunar exploration programme and succeeded in orbiting Chang'e-1 in 2007. In 2013, they had deployed a rover on the lunar surface and last year the Chang'e 4 landed on the far side of the moon. They have ambitious plans to explore the south polar region of the moon. Shenzhou spacecraft, a modified version of the Russian Soyuz manned spacecraft was created for China's manned space program. A mini space station Tiangong-1 was launched in 2011. Since then, several manned missions were made with the ultimate goal of establishing a full-fledged space station. Further, they have ambitious plans for manned mission to the moon, by 2030 and robotic missions to Mars.

The European Space Agency, established jointly by 21 European countries, undertake space exploration programmes. This space agency concentrates on various earth observation and scientific missions to explore the planetary systems and galaxies. They have sent the Cassini-Huygenes spacecraft which landed on surface of Titan and returned images in 2005. In 2003, the Mars express with orbiter and lander was followed by as Venus express to study Venus' atmosphere. ESA is a member in building and operating the ISS. In 2016, they announced plans to build an international moon village by 2030. The Ariane, heavy lift launch vehicle, is the flagship rocket of Europe, launching more than 50 per cent of commercial communication satellites. ESA is in the process of its own navigation satellite constellations as an alternate to the US GPS system.

Besides the ESA, France, Germany and Italy have their own space agencies who undertake independent programs of earth observation, communication, planetary exploration and space science. Out of these, CNES, the French space agency, was responsible for development of Ariane.

The US annual budget for space programmes is around $25 billion, Europe and China spend nearly $5 billion, whereas India’s budget is hardly $1 billion. Yet, the technology achieved on a shoe-string budget in India by indigenous efforts matches global standards. The only missing element is the human access to space, for which the government has approved the ambitious Gaganyaan project.

Nair is former chairman of ISRO.