Preserving the past: How India is digitising and restoring ancient manuscripts

Saffron-robed, with a shaven head, a prominent tilak and piercing eyes.

This is how Chanakya, or Kautilya, the legendary strategist in the court of Mauryan emperor Chandragupta Maurya, has come to be imagined in history textbooks and popular culture. We don’t know if he looked anything like that. But we do know how he thought, his ideas on statecraft and politics still invoked by shrewd political strategists. They survive in the Arthashastra he wrote in Sanskrit around 2nd century BCE. Originally written on palm leaves, the text itself disappeared from public consciousness for centuries after the decline of the Mauryan empire. That changed in 1905 when the original Arthashastra was discovered, amid a mound of palm leaf manuscripts, at the Oriental Research Institute in Mysuru. The discovery transformed the study of ancient political thought. All because a manuscript existed.

Long before the advent of paper mills and the printing press, knowledge was painstakingly preserved by hand. Across the subcontinent, scribes wrote on whatever their landscape offered: palm leaves in the south and along the coasts, birch bark in the north and handmade paper in Kashmir, where many manuscripts have survived for centuries. Cotton and silk cloth, too, were used. The techniques differed. While text was incised on to palm leaves in the south, it was written in ink on birch bark and paper in the north.

The result is one of the world’s richest manuscript tradition. An estimated 10 million manuscripts survive today, preserved in libraries, museums, universities, temples, monasteries and private collections across India.

VANISHING SCRIPTS

Among the oldest surviving manuscripts from the subcontinent are the Gilgit Manuscript, a cache of Buddhist texts dating to the 5th-6th centuries CE. Written on birch bark, they were discovered in 1931 inside a stupa near Gilgit, in what is today Pakistan-occupied Kashmir. Now included in the UNESCO’s Memory of the World Register, they are remarkable not only for their antiquity but also for the window they offer into the early history of Buddhism. They are written in Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit in Gupta and post-Gupta Brahmi scripts.

The discovery was first announced by the Hungarian-British archaeologist Sir Aurel Stein, although he did not excavate the site himself. The cache was initially taken to Srinagar, and during the 1947-1948 India-Pakistan war, a substantial portion was transferred to the National Archives of India in New Delhi for safekeeping, where it remains today.

Conflict, however, has been only one of the threats. “A major chunk of our manuscripts was lost during the devastating floods in 2014,” says Dr Jahangir Iqbal, head of department of Persian at Kashmir University and cluster centre head for the Gyan Bharatam Mission, the Union ministry of culture’s flagship programme to identify, document, conserve, digitise and promote India’s manuscript heritage. Despite the losses, his team has identified nearly 42,000 manuscripts, including through door-to-door surveys, since work under the mission began in March.

“We found a lot of manuscripts in Takri,” says Iqbal. Derived from the older Sharada script, Takri was widely used across Jammu, Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and parts of Punjab between the 16th and 20th centuries. “Today, there are only a few people who can read it. That has made it an important area of research for us,” he says.

The same goes for the now largely obsolete Sharada, which emerged around the 8th century and remained Kashmir’s principal script for centuries. “Many of the region’s most important Sanskrit religious and philosophical texts were written in Sharada,” says Iqbal. He points to Sharada Peeth, the ancient temple and renowned centre of learning dedicated to goddess Saraswati in PoK’s Neelum Valley. The script is believed to be named after the goddess of learning. Sharada Peeth finds a mention in Rajatarangini, poet and historian Kalhana’s 12th-century Sanskrit chronicle of Kashmir’s kings.

OF SHARADA & LAILA MAJNOON

Srinagar’s Lal Chowk has long been the stage for protests, political rallies and some of Kashmir’s most consequential speeches. This iconic site also preserves history in another form.

Housed inside the Sri Pratap Singh (SPS) Library complex, the Oriental Research Library carries an unremarkable feel. However, it houses an extraordinary collection of 5,580 manuscripts in a remarkable range of languages and scripts. One such is a manuscript of Kalhana’s Rajatarangini, written in Sharada script in black ink on handmade paper and bound like a book. The collection also includes a large manuscript on astronomy written on cotton cloth in Sharada, as well as an illuminated 18th century copy of Laila Majnoon by the 16th-century Azerbaijani poet Fazooli.

The collection spans Persian, Sanskrit, Kashmiri, Urdu, Turki, Punjabi, Hindi, Pashto, Dogri and Braj Bhasha. One manuscript that stands out is a work by poet Tulsidas in Braj Bhasha, written not in Devanagari but in the Perso-Arabic script in the elegant Nastaliq style. It serves as a quiet reminder how literary traditions transcended linguistic and religious boundaries. Over the centuries, Sharada gradually gave way to the Perso-Arabic script, with Nastaliq emerging as the dominant writing style in the Kashmir Valley, a position it continues to hold.

Meanwhile, at Kashmir University, conservators Junaid Hussain Chowdhary and Aaqib Rasool Reshi are working on the conservation of a Persian manuscript, written in Nastaliq. The pages have browned, their edges brittle, and there are many tiny holes. Before any repair begins, they examine the paper, identify the ink and assess every tear. The gaps are filled using fine Japanese tissue paper, which blend with the original sheet. “A single ream costs around Rs35,000,” says Iqbal. A special paper, imported from Nepal, is then used for the damaged edges.

Once restored, the manuscripts are sent to the digitisation lab at the university’s Allama Iqbal Library. There, Mehboob Ilahi scans each page. A detailed metadata is then entered before it is uploaded. Ilahi is tasked with scanning upto 2,000-3,000 pages per day. “It is not an easy task. The volume is enormous, and every manuscript has to be handled with utmost care,” explains Iqbal.

KERALA’S TEMPLE MUSEUM

While work happens with near-surgical precision at Kashmir University’s manuscript preservation department, the atmosphere at Sevadhi Museum and Indological Research Institute in Kottayam, Kerala, is altogether different. Curator S. Rajendu sits hunched over his desk, gently cleaning palm-leaf manuscripts, which are more than 200 years old. He uses lemongrass oil, its grassy, citrusy notes filling the room.

The institute is housed within the sprawling Kumaranalloor Devi Temple complex, traditionally believed to date to the Chera period (9th to 12th century CE). More than just a shrine, the complex houses several courtyards and buildings that once served as granaries and classrooms, showcasing the temple’s role as a cultural centre. One section commemorates Mahatma Gandhi’s visit to the temple following the landmark Temple Entry Proclamation in 1936 by the ruler of Travancore, which opened Hindu temples to those from the lower castes, often referred to as ‘avarnas’.

The discovery that led to the creation of Sevadhi Museum and Indological Research Institute was almost accidental. In 2024, thousands of neglected palm-leaf manuscripts were discovered while cleaning the attic of the temple office. After a year-long effort, about 37,200 manuscripts were saved.

“I believe that represents only about 3 per cent of the original collection,” says Rajendu. “The rest were probably lost to humidity, pests, fire and years of neglect.”

This extraordinary discovery throws light into the cultural heritage of Kerala, especially central Travancore. Rather than constructing a new building, the Kottara Malika (palace bungalow) of the temple was restored to house the museum, giving it a new lease of life while providing a traditional character to the institution.

Along with temple and land revenue records, the collection consists of several classical texts such as the Ramayan and the Mahabharat and also on ayurveda, mathematics, astronomy and literature. “Many are written in scripts that very few people can read today, such as Grantha,” says Rajendu.

In much of south India, scribes engraved letters on to dried palm leaves with a sharp stylus before rubbing charcoal into the grooves to make the text legible. “Under ideal conditions, a palm-leaf manuscript can survive for roughly 600 to 800 years. Beyond that, preservation becomes extremely difficult,” says Rajendu. “They begin to develop fungus, accumulate dirt and gradually discolour.”

Conservation begins with gently removing surface dirt using soft brushes, followed by an application of citronella oil to clean and condition the leaves. Finally, conservators rub a traditional black pigment, similar to natural kajal, into the engraved grooves, restoring the contrast between the letters and the leaf. The treatment also improves the quality of the digital scans done before metadata is entered as a part of digitisation.

Among the collection are copies of 4th century BCE Sanskrit scholar Panini’s treatise on grammar, along with texts on ayurveda, botany and toxicology. A particular one deals with treatments for snakebites and other poisons. Another is the Hastyayurveda, a treatise on the treatment of elephants.

There is also a Sushruta Samhita, which Rajendu calls unusual. “The Sushruta Samhita is exceptionally rare in Kerala,” he says. “It primarily deals with surgery. On the other hand, Kerala’s ayurvedic practice traditionally focused much more on internal medicine than surgical procedures. Physicians generally prescribed herbal formulations, decoctions and medicines rather than performing surgery.”

Among the earliest surviving manuscripts on Indian medicine is the Bower Manuscript, believed to be dated to the 5th or 6th century CE. Three of its seven treatises deal with ayurveda. It was discovered in 1890 near Kucha, in northwest China, showcasing also how knowledge travelled along the ancient Silk Road.

KNOWLEDGE WITHOUT BORDERS

Written in Tibetan, Mongolian and Chinese, a rare trilingual manuscript is housed at The Asiatic Society, Kolkata. “Such manuscripts demonstrate the cultural exchanges that existed across Asia,” says Dr Pritam Gurey, librarian at The Asiatic Society.

The worn-down building on Park Street hardly does justice to the heritage it holds. Founded in 1784 by Sir William Jones, the society later counted among its members James Prinsep, whose work helped decipher the Brahmi and Kharosthi scripts. Today, its collection includes more than 50,000 manuscripts.

The collection spans languages, scripts, centuries and civilisations. A rare Burmese Ramayan written on palm leaf rests alongside Padshahnama, an account of Shah Jahan’s reign, bearing the Mughal emperor’s signature. There is also a Tuzuk-i-Baburi, Babur’s autobiography, more commonly called Baburnama. It was originally written in Chagatai Turkic, his mother tongue. Emperor Akbar later commissioned a Persian translation, and most surviving illustrated Mughal copies are based on that Persian version. The Asiatic Society’s manuscript, however, is in Jaghatai language, written in the Nastaliq script.

“Many manuscripts were collected by scholars of the Asiatic Society from different parts of Bengal and other regions of India,” says Gurey. “The Arabic and Persian manuscripts, however, largely came from Fort William College. Even today, manuscripts continue to surface unexpectedly.”

A remarkable one is a large illuminated manuscript of the Astasahasrika Prajnaparamita, a Buddhist philosophical text written in Tibetan in the Dbu-can script, which stands out owing to its embellishment and sheer size.

ART OF MANUSCRIPTS

At the National Museum in New Delhi, one manuscript dwarfs every other: a Guru Granth Sahib weighing more than 25kg. The contrast is even more striking when it is placed beside a miniature Quran, barely larger than a Rs10 coin, bearing the seal of Mughal emperor Shah Jahan.

The museum also preserves a rare 7th-century Quran. “This manuscript has a Persian note on one of its folios. It says that it was part of the treasury of the Qutb Shahs of Golconda. The note also mentions that the manuscript was handwritten by Hazrat Ali (fourth Caliph of Islam and Prophet Muhammad’s son-in-law),” says deputy curator and subject matter expert Khatibur Rehman.

Another unusual object in the collection is a jacket inscribed with verses from the Holy Quran. The museum also houses an illustrated Persian Baburnama, adorned with 145 miniature paintings from the Mughal school. “Many of the paintings bear the names of the artists who created them. Interestingly, several of these same artists also illustrated the Tarikh-e-Khandan-e-Timuriyah, a manuscript preserved in the Khuda Bakhsh Oriental Public Library in Patna,” says Rehman.

He notes that the museum’s Arabic and Persian collections are particularly rich in illustrated manuscripts, while the Indian manuscript collection is distinguished by its literary and religious texts.

PRESERVING HERITAGE

In order to identify, document, digitise and promote India’s manuscript heritage, the Union government launched Gyan Bharatam in September last year. It received a financial outlay of Rs491.66 crore for its multi-year spending, spanning 2025 to 2031.

“It wasn’t an entirely new idea,” says Samar Nanda, joint secretary, Union ministry of culture. “The National Mission for Manuscripts had existed since 2003. It was an institutional initiative focused on locating manuscripts, documenting them, conserving them and creating records. The difference is the scale. The goal now is to digitise one crore manuscripts, reaching every corner of the country and bringing together collections that were scattered across thousands of repositories.”

While initially the idea was to establish a few large digitisation centres where manuscripts from across the country could be brought, it was quickly realised that wasn’t feasible. “Many manuscripts are fragile. Also, many repositories and private collectors are unwilling to send them outside their premises. So we decided to reverse the model,” says Nanda.

The ministry, therefore, signed MoUs with institutes to function as cluster centres. “Instead of bringing the manuscripts to the digitisation centre, we would take the digitisation facility to the manuscripts. These institutions represent different regions and manuscript traditions. Together, they form the backbone of the Gyan Bharatam Mission,” adds Nanda.

But digitisation is only the first step. Survey, preservation and cataloguing remain central to the mission, while technologies such as Handwritten Text Recognition, transliteration, translation and artificial intelligence are expected to make manuscripts accessible to a far wider audience. The Asiatic Society is already exploring that possibility. Last year, it partnered with IIT Kharagpur, IIT Delhi and the Centre for Development of Advanced Computing to develop AI tools capable of digitising, transcribing and translating manuscripts written in ancient scripts.

“Once manuscripts are digitally preserved, people can read them online, but only if they know the language, the script and the subject,” says Lt Col Anant Sinha, administrator at The Asiatic Society. “Suppose I give you an astronomical manuscript written in Sanskrit in the Devanagari script. Unless you know Sanskrit, can read Devanagari and understand astronomy, you won’t be able to use it. This is where AI can play a role, allowing people to understand manuscripts directly from the original source, without intermediaries.”

Meanwhile, at Kashmir University, the effort doesn’t end with digitisation. Manuscripts are also being translated and prepared for publication. One such work is Majmu Al Tawareekh, a Persian chronicle by Pandit Birbal Kachroo. “We are working on its English translation,” says Iqbal. Written during the Sikh rule in 19th-century Kashmir, it offers a detailed account of the region’s social, economic and cultural life.

At the National Museum, one manuscript has attracted particular interest: an autobiography of Mughal emperor Jahangir. “Researchers are examining whether it was written in the emperor’s own hand,” says Rehman.

It has been over a century since the discovery of Arthashastra transformed our understanding of ancient India. Countless manuscripts, meanwhile, remain undiscovered, unread and unpublished in temple attics, libraries or people’s homes. The next discovery, hence, may just be waiting.